THE UNIVERSITY OF CHENAB MPHIL LINGUISTICS PAPER
ENGLISH (VERBAL EXPRESSION)
Use the verb and the tense given to complete the following sentences:
1. As soon as he (to receive) -----------------------------the parcel that day, he sent it to Peter.
a. receive b. received c. has received d. had received
2. He (to visit--------------a lot of countries since he joined 'The Herald Tribune'.
a. had visited b. has visited c. visited d. would visit
3. I wish I (to have) ------------------this conversation with you a few weeks ago.
a. could have b. have had c. had d. had had
4. By the time I complete my studies next month, I (to live) ----------------------- in London for six years.
a. will have been living b. will live c. will be living d. shall live
5. The doctor (to operate) ------------------------- on the patient when he woke up.
a. has been operating b. operated c. was operating d. will operate
Pick the closest Synonym of the following words:
6. Repudiate
a) renounce b) embrace c) acknowledge d) welcome
The answer is a) renounce, because to repudiate means to refuse to accept or be associated with something, and to renounce also means to give up or reject. The other options are incorrect: to embrace and welcome are to accept and to acknowledge is to recognize the truth of something, all of which are opposite meanings to repudiate.
Repudiate means to refuse to accept or be associated with.
Renounce: to give up or reject.
Embrace: to accept or support with enthusiasm.
Acknowledge: to accept or admit the existence or truth of.
Welcome: to greet or receive gladly.
7. Prudent
a) foolish b) desolate c) sagacious d) crackle.
## Explanation
Prudent** (adjective) means acting with or showing care and thought for the future; **wise** or **sensible**.
* **c) sagacious** (adjective) means having or showing keen mental discernment and good judgment; **shrewd** or **wise**.
The other options are not synonyms:
* **a) foolish** is an **antonym** (opposite), meaning lacking sense or judgment.
* **b) desolate** means deserted, uninhabited, or feeling miserable.
* **d) crackle** is a verb meaning to make a rapid succession of short, sharp, slight sounds.
8. Correlation
a) reasonable b) fair c) dependence d) explicit
## Explanation
* **Correlation** (noun) refers to a **mutual relationship or connection** between two or more things, where one thing tends to change as the other does. It implies a degree of connection or reliance.
* **c) dependence** (noun) means the state of being influenced or determined by or relying on something else. This accurately captures the sense of a statistical or systematic connection inherent in correlation.
The other options are not synonyms:
* **a) reasonable** means based on sense and good judgment.
* **b) fair** means treating people equally or a moderate size/amount.
* **d) explicit** means stated clearly and in detail.
9. Veneration
a) adoration b) exhalation c) modesty d) intimation
Explanation
Veneration (noun) means great respect, reverence, or awe. It often implies a feeling of deep religious or spiritual worship.
a) adoration (noun) means deep love and respect; worship. This meaning is the closest match, referring to intense reverence or devotion.
The other options are not synonyms:
b) exhalation is the act of breathing out.
c) modesty is the quality of being unassuming or humble.
d) intimation is an indication or hint.
Select the most appropriate options to complete the conditional sentences given
below:
10. If we had gone earlier, we-----------------------------------------------better weather.
a. Had had b. could have
c. would have had d. would have
## Explanation
This is an example of a **Third Conditional** sentence, which is used to talk about hypothetical situations in the past (things that didn't happen) and their hypothetical past results.
The structure of the Third Conditional is:
* **If clause (condition):** *If + Past Perfect* ($\text{had} + \text{past participle}$)
* Example: "If we **had gone** earlier..."
* **Main clause (result):** *Modal verb ($\text{would}$, $\text{could}$, or $\text{might}$) + $\text{have} + \text{past participle}$*
* Example: "...we **would have had** better weather."
In this case, the past participle of the verb "to have" (meaning to experience or possess) is **had**, so the correct structure for the result is **would have had**.
11. If Moosa had taken that easy chance, we .
a. Had won b. would win
c. would have won d. have won
Explanation: This is a third conditional sentence, which describes a hypothetical situation in the past. The structure of a third conditional sentence is "If + past perfect tense, would have + past participle." In this case, "If Moosa had taken that easy chance" is the past perfect tense condition, and "would have won" is the resulting action.
12. If we didn’t have a car, we -------------------------------------- it difficult to get about.
a. Would have found b. would find
c. would have had found d. find
The structure of the Second Conditional is:
If + Simple Past (Condition),Subject + would/could/might + Base Form of Verb (Result)
In your sentence:
Condition: "If we didn't have a car" (Simple Past). This sets up a hypothetical situation for the present.
Result: "we would find it difficult to get about" (would+base form ’find’). This is the correct structure to express the probable hypothetical result.
13. If I were you, I a lawyer for some advice.
a. would ask b. shall ask
c. would have asked d.should have asked
14. If I don’t practice hard, I any better.
a. won’t get b. wouldn’t get
b. c. wouldn’t have got d. wouldn’thave had got
The sentence uses the **first conditional** structure, which is used for real and possible situations in the present or future.
The structure is:
* **If + present simple** (for the condition, e.g., *If I don't practice hard*)
* **will + base form of the verb** (for the result, e.g., *I will not get* *I won't get*)
The complete and correct sentence is: "If I don’t practice hard, I **won’t get** any better."
Complete the following sentences using the phrasal verbs from the given options:
15. If someone--- ----------------------------- you, they treat you very badly.
a. walks into b. walks over
c. walks in on d. walks off with
The phrase **"walks over"** (or often **"walks all over"**) means to treat someone badly, disregard their feelings, or take advantage of them without any respect or consideration.
The complete sentence is: "If someone **walks over** you, they treat you very badly."
Here are the meanings of the other options:
* **a. walks into** (someone/something): To crash into someone/something by accident, or to easily get a job/become involved in a situation. (e.g., *He walked right into the glass door.*)
* **c. walks in on** (someone): To enter a room and accidentally interrupt someone who is doing something private or embarrassing. (e.g., *She walked in on her brother while he was singing.*)
* **d. walks off with** (something): To steal something, or to win a prize or contest easily. (e.g., *Someone walked off with my umbrella.*)
16. If you--------someone with whom you have a close relationship, you leave them suddenly.
a. walk out on b. walk into
c. walk over d. walk off with.
The phrase "walk out on" means to suddenly leave a person or a situation, especially one where you have a responsibility or a close relationship (like a partner, family, or a job), often in a way that is considered unsupportive or irresponsible.
17. If someone-- -----------------------------------something, they take it without asking the person to whom it belongs.
a. walks away with b. walks away from
c. walks off with d. walks over
The phrase "walks off with" (or "walk away with") means to take something, often casually or sneakily, that doesn't belong to you, implying theft or unauthorized possession.
The complete sentence is: "If someone walks off with something, they take it without asking the person to whom it belongs."
Meanings of the Options
a. walks away with: Has the same meaning as "walks off with" (to steal or win easily).
b. walks away from: Means to leave a bad situation, relationship, or a responsibility. (e.g., She walked away from the argument.)
c. walks off with: Means to take or steal.
d. walks over: Means to treat someone badly or contemptuously.
18. If someone-- ------------------------------ a situation that they find unpleasant, they leave it without trying to make it better before they leave.
a. walks out on b. walks away with
c. walks over d. walks away from
19. If you------an unpleasant situation, you become involved in it without expecting to, sometimes because you're careless.
a. walk away from b. walk into
c. walk off with d. walks over
The phrasal verb "walk into" means to become unexpectedly or accidentally involved in a situation, often a difficult or unpleasant one, frequently due to a lack of caution.
Find the odd one out in the following.
20. a. Big b. Large c. Huge d. Hard
21. a. Travel b. journey c. trip d. ticket
22. a. Forget b. speak c. talk d. chat
23. a. Unusual b. different c. happy d. strange
24. a. Fantastic b. difficult c. wonderful d. great
25. a. trivial b. unimportant c. important d. insignificant
READING COMPREHENSION
Passage 1: Reviving the practice of using elements of popular music in classical composition, an approach that had been in hibernation in the United States during the 1960s, composer Philip Glass (born 1937) embraced the ethos of popular music in his compositions. Glass based two symphoniesn on music by rock musicians David Bowie and Brian Eno, but the symphonies' sound is distinctively his. Popular elements do not appear out of place in Glass's classical music, which from its early days has shared certain harmonies and rhythms with rock music. Yet this use of popular elements has not made Glass a composer of popular music. His music is not a version of popular music packaged to attract classical listeners; it is high art for listeners steeped in rock rather than the classics. Select only one answer choice.
26. The passage addresses which of the following issues related to Glass's use of popular elements in his classical compositions?
a. How it is regarded by listeners who prefer rock to the classics
b. How it has affected the commercial success of Glass's music
c. Whether it has contributed to a revival of interest among other composers in using popular elements in their compositions
d. Whether it has had a detrimental effect on Glass's reputation as a composer of classical music
Consider each of the three choices separately and select all that apply.
27. The passage suggests that Glass's work displays which of the following qualities?
a. A return to the use of popular music in classical compositions
b. An attempt to elevate rock music to an artistic status more closely approximating that of
classical music
c. A long-standing tendency to incorporate elements from two apparently disparate musical
styles
28. Select the sentence that distinguishes two ways of integrating rock and classical music.
a. How it is regarded by listeners who prefer rock to the classics
b. How it has affected the commercial success of Glass's music
c. Whether it has contributed to a revival of interest among other composers in using popular elements in their compositions
d. Whether it has had a detrimental effect on Glass's reputation as a composer of classical music
Passage 2: Education planning should aim at meeting the educational needs of the entire population of all age groups. While the traditional structure of education as a three layer hierarchy
from the primary stage to the university represents the core, we should not overlook the periphery which is equally important. Under modern conditions, workers need to rewind, or renew their
enthusiasm, or strike out in a new direction, or improve their skills as much as any university professor. The retired and the aged have their needs as well. Educational planning, in their words, should take care of the needs of everyone.
Our structures of education have been built up on the assumption that there is a terminal point to education. This basic defect has become all the more harmful today. A UNESCO report entitled ‘Learning to Be’ prepared by Edgar Faure and others in 1973 asserts that the education of children must prepare the future adult for various forms of self-learning. A viable education system of the
future should consist of modules with different kinds of functions serving a diversity of constituents. And performance, not the period of study, should be the basis for credentials. The writing is already on the wall.
In view of the fact that the significance of a commitment of lifelong learning and lifetime education is being discussed only in recent years even in educationally advanced countries, the possibility of the idea becoming an integral part of educational thinking seems to be a far cry. For, to move in
that direction means such more than some simple rearrangement of the present organization of education. But a good beginning can be made by developing Open University programs for older learners of learners of different categories and introducing schools. Also these institutions should learn to cooperate with the numerous community organizations such as libraries, museums, municipal recreational programs, health services etc.
Questions:
29. What is the main thrust of the author?
a. Traditional system should be strengthened.
b. Formal education is more important than informal.
c. One should never cease to learn.
d. It is impossible to meet the needs of everyone.
30. Which of the following best describes the purpose of the author?
a. To criticize the present educational system.
b. To strengthen the present educational practices.
c. To support non-conventional educational organizations.
d. To present a pragmatic point of view.
31. According to the passage, the present education structures assume which of the following?
a. All the people can be educated as per their needs.
b. Present educational planning is very much practical.
c. Education is one time process.
d. Simple rearrangement of the present educational system is a must.
32. What should be the major characteristic of the future educational system?
a. Different modules with same function.
b. Same module for different groups.
c. No modules but standard compulsory program for all.
d. None of these.
"different kinds of functions serving a diversity of constituents
33. According to the author, educational plan should attempt to
a. Train the people at the core.
b. Encourage conventional schools and colleges.
c. Decide a terminal point of education.
d. Fulfill the educational needs of everyone.
34. According to the author, what measures should Open University adopt to meet modern conditions?
a. Develop various programs for adult learners.
b. Open more colleges on traditional lines.
c. Cater to the needs of those who represent ‘core’.
d. Primary education should be under the control of open universities.
35. According to the author, what should be the basis for awarding credentials?
a. Duration of the course.
b. Competence of the course teachers.
c. Diversity of the topics covered.
d. Real grasp of matter or skill.
36. Which of the following is not true in context of the given passage?
a. Lifelong learning is a recent concept.
b. Workers’ knowledge and skills also need to be updated constantly.
c. ‘Learning to Be’ defends that there is a terminal point to education.
d. Schools and colleges should open extension services.
37. According to the author, the concept of ‘lifetime education’ is
a. As old as traditional education.
b. Still in formative stages.
c. In vogue in advanced countries.
d. Not practical.
38. Integrating the concepts of lifelong learning with the educational structure would imply
a. Closing down conventional schools and colleges.
b. Longer durations for all formal courses.
c. Simple rearrangement of present educational organizations.
d. More weight for actual performance than real understanding.
SUBJECT KNOWLEDGE
39. English language begins with the Anglo-Saxons.
a. True
b. False
The English language began with the arrival of three Germanic tribes—the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes—who migrated to Britain in the 5th century AD. Their languages, which were similar West Germanic dialects, developed into what is now known as Old English, or Anglo-Saxon. This period marks the earliest historical form of the English language.
40. The study of the physical properties of speech sounds is known as
a. Articulatory Phonetics
b. Intonation
c. Auditory Phonetics
d. Acoustics
Acoustics, specifically Acoustic Phonetics, is the branch of phonetics concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds (like frequency, amplitude, and duration) as they are transmitted between the mouth of the speaker and the ear of the listener.
Articulatory Phonetics is the study of how speech sounds are produced (or articulated) by the vocal organs.
Auditory Phonetics is the study of how speech sounds are heard and perceived by the listener.
Intonation refers to the rise and fall of pitch in speech and is a property of entire utterances, not the physical property of individual sounds.
41. The word fax is coined from facsimile through
a. Clipping
b. Backformation
c. Derivation
d. Compounding
The word **fax** is coined from **facsimile** through **a. Clipping**.
***
### Explanation of Word Formation Processes
* **Clipping** is the process of forming a new word by shortening an existing word while retaining the original word's meaning.
* *Example:* **fax** from *facsimile*, **ad** from *advertisement*, **phone** from *telephone*.
* **Backformation** is the creation of a new word (typically a verb) by removing what is mistakenly thought to be a morpheme (like a suffix) from an existing word.
* *Example:* **edit** from *editor*, **donate** from *donation*.
* **Derivation** is the process of forming new words by adding affixes (prefixes or suffixes) to existing words or roots.
* *Example:* **un**happy (adding a prefix), read**able** (adding a suffix).
* **Compounding** is the process of joining two or more existing words to form a new word.
* *Example:* **sun** + **flower** = *sunflower*, **book** + **worm** = *bookworm*.
42. The property of language that allows the generation of an infinite number of sentences from a finite set of words is known as
a. Recursion
b. Generative Linguistics
c. Grammaticality
d. Sense relations
### Explanation of Concepts
* **Recursion** �� is the property where a linguistic rule can be applied to its own output, allowing phrases and sentences to be infinitely extended by embedding one structure inside another.
* *Example:* "This is the **house**." "This is the **house that Jack built**." "This is the **house that Jack built that held the malt**," and so on.
* **Generative Linguistics** ��️ is a theoretical approach to language study (most famously associated with Noam Chomsky) that attempts to create a set of explicit rules (a grammar) that can **generate** all and only the grammatical sentences of a language. Recursion is a crucial mechanism in a generative grammar.
* **Grammaticality** ✅ refers to whether a sequence of words forms a well-formed sentence according to the rules of a specific language.
* **Sense Relations** �� are the relationships between the meanings of words (e.g., synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy).
43. Which thinker/philosopher had a major impact on the latter half of the 20th century on linguistics?
a. Noam Chomsky
b. Immanuel Kant
c. Zellig Harris
d. Ferdinand Saussure
e. Aristotle
The thinker/philosopher who had a major impact on the latter half of the 20th century on linguistics is **a. Noam Chomsky**.
His work, beginning in the late 1950s (with *Syntactic Structures* in 1957), is considered a revolution in the field, challenging the prevailing behaviorist and structuralist approaches.
# Key Contributions
* **Generative Grammar:** Chomsky introduced the theory of **Transformational-Generative Grammar**, which shifted the focus of linguistic study from merely classifying language data (Structuralism) to discovering the underlying, universal rules (syntax) that allow humans to create an infinite number of grammatical sentences.
* **Cognitive Shift:** He argued that language is an **innate, biological faculty** (**Universal Grammar**), a concept that helped launch the field of **cognitive science** by framing language as a key component of the human mind. This directly opposed the behaviorist view that language is learned purely through stimulus and response.
* **Competence vs. Performance:** He made a crucial distinction between a speaker's internalized knowledge of language (**competence**) and their actual use of language in concrete situations (**performance**), asserting that competence is the proper object of linguistic study.
44. French replaced English as language of law.
a. True
b. False
English was the language that **replaced** French (specifically a dialect known as **Law French**) as the primary language of law in England.
Here is a brief timeline of the languages of law in England:
1. **Before 1066:** **Old English** was the language of law.
2. **After 1066 (Norman Conquest):** **Latin** became the primary written language of record, but **Anglo-Norman French** (which evolved into **Law French**) became the spoken language of the courts, the nobility, and later, written legal literature. French dominated legal proceedings for centuries.
3. **1362:** The **Pleading in English Act** was passed, mandating that all spoken arguments in court must be in **English**, though records continued to be written in Latin (and Law French remained in use for legal education and certain documents).
4. **1731:** The **Proceedings in Courts of Justice Act** finally made **English** the mandatory language for all written court records, officially ending the use of Law French and Latin for record-keeping.
45. Which of the following could be a suitable definition of Sociolinguistics?
a. The study of language variation as a human phenomenon that affects large parts of the population
b. Research aimed at finding the reasons for linguistic variations in social and
environmental conditions
c. A field of research that deals with the relation between language and society
d. All of the above
* **a. The study of language variation as a human phenomenon that affects large parts of the population:** This is accurate, as sociolinguistics investigates how language changes across different groups (dialects, accents, styles) and why.
* **b. Research aimed at finding the reasons for linguistic variations in social and environmental conditions:** This is also a key goal, as sociolinguists look for the **social causes** (e.g., class, gender, age, context) that lead to different ways of speaking.
* **c. A field of research that deals with the relation between language and society:** This is the most concise, general, and widely accepted definition. The entire discipline is built on exploring this connection.
46. Parts of speech are determined on the basis of
a. Distribution
b. Meaning
c. Words
d. All of above
Distribution (Syntactic Behavior): This refers to the position a word occupies in a sentence and the words it can appear with.
Example: A word that can appear after an article (like the) and take a plural ending (-s) is distributed like a Noun (the dogs).
Meaning (Semantic Criteria): This is the traditional definition, focusing on what the word refers to.
Example: A Noun names a person, place, or thing; a Verb expresses an action or state of being.
Words (Morphological Criteria): This refers to the form of the word, including the prefixes and suffixes (inflections and derivations) it can take.
Example: A word that can be inflected for past tense (-ed) is a Verb (walked); a word ending in a specific suffix like -ly is often an Adverb (quickly)
47. When you have two categories and they never appear in the same environment (context), you have
a. Syntactic distribution
b. Complementary distribution
c. Subclass of sentence
d. None of above
**Complementary distribution** is a concept in linguistics, particularly in phonology and morphology, that describes a situation where two or more related items (like sounds or words/categories) **never occur in the exact same environment** (context).
* If one category, $\text{X}$, appears in environment $\text{A}$, the other category, $\text{Y}$, will appear in a different environment, $\text{B}$, and vice versa. They "complement" each other's environments, so their total distribution covers all possible contexts.
That's a great explanation! To make the concept of **Complementary Distribution** even clearer, here is a simple, non-technical example and a linguistic one:
## Easy Everyday Example
Imagine you have two shirts: a **T-shirt** (Category X) and a **Sweater** (Category Y).
Environment A:** Hot weather (You wear a **T-shirt**).
* **Environment B:** Cold weather (You wear a **Sweater**).
The T-shirt and the Sweater are in **complementary distribution** because:
1. They are related (both are garments).
2. They never appear in the exact same environment (you don't wear both, or either one, in the opposite weather).
3. Their distributions cover all the temperature contexts where a shirt is needed.
## Linguistic Example (Phonology)
A classic example in English is the sounds **\[p]** (the normal 'p') and **\[pʰ]** (the aspirated 'p' with a puff of air) . They are two versions (allophones) of the same phoneme.
* **Environment A (Word-Initial):** At the beginning of a stressed word (e.g., *pin*, *pot*).
* You always use the aspirated sound **\[pʰ]** (the 'p' in *pin* is pronounced **\[pʰɪn]**).
* **Environment B (After 's'):** After an 's' sound (e.g., *spin*, *spot*).
* You always use the unaspirated sound **\[p]** (the 'p' in *spin* is pronounced **\[spɪn]**).
You will **never** find \[pʰ] in Environment B, and you will **never** find \[p] in Environment A. Because the two sounds' distributions perfectly "complement" one another, they are in **complementary distribution**.
* **a. Syntactic distribution:** This is a general term referring to the set of positions in which a linguistic unit (like a part of speech) can occur, but it does not specifically refer to the *mutually exclusive* nature of the two categories.
* **c. Subclass of sentence:** c. Subclass of sentence: A subclass of sentence is a specific type of sentence, like a declarative sentence or an interrogative sentence. This doesn't relate to the concept of two elements never appearing together.
48. We can add new members in the following class:
a. Noun
b. Determiner
c. Pronoun
d. All of above
The correct answer is **a. Noun**.
1. **Open Classes (Lexical/Content Words):** These classes readily accept new words, usually because new things, actions, or qualities are constantly being created.
* **Nouns** (e.g., *app*, *selfie*, *podcast*)
* **Verbs** (e.g., *to google*, *to crowdsource*, *to friend*)
* **Adjectives** (e.g., *woke*, *cringey*, *basic*)
* **Adverbs**
2. **Closed Classes (Grammatical/Function Words):** These classes contain a limited, fixed set of words that change very slowly, if at all. Their primary function is to serve a grammatical role.
* **Determiners** (*the, a, this, my, some*)
* **Pronouns** (*he, she, it, they, us, who*)
* **Prepositions** (*in, on, at, of, to*)
* **Conjunctions** (*and, but, or*)
49. Verb that does not require an object called:
a. Intransitive
b. Poly-transitive
c. Transitive
d. Ditransitive
An **intransitive** verb is a verb that expresses a complete thought without requiring a direct object to receive the action.
* **Example:** The baby **slept**. (The verb "slept" doesn't need an object.)
* **Example:** She **runs** every morning.
* **Transitive:** Requires one direct object (e.g., *She hit the **ball***).
* **Ditransitive:** Requires two objects (a direct and an indirect object) (e.g., *He gave **her** the **book***).
* **Poly-transitive:** This term is not a standard category in English grammar; verbs requiring more than one object are typically grouped under ditransitive or tri-transitive.
50. Definite and Indefinite adjectives are categorized as:
a. Context
b. Intensifier
c. Numeral Adjective
d. All of Above
## Explanation
The terms "definite" and "indefinite" in the context of adjectives refer to whether the word specifies an **exact, countable quantity** or an **approximate, non-specific quantity**.
* **Definite Adjectives** (Definite Numerals)
* These express an **exact number or position**.
* They are a type of **Numeral Adjective**.
* **Examples:** *one, two, three* (Cardinals), and *first, second, third* (Ordinals).
* **Indefinite Adjectives** (Indefinite Numerals)
* These express a **non-specific or approximate number/quantity**.
* They are also a type of **Numeral Adjective** or **Quantitative Adjective**.
* **Examples:** *some, many, few, several, all, no.*
While the terms **definite** and **indefinite** are most commonly used to classify the articles (*the* is definite; *a/an* is indefinite), when they are applied to *adjectives* (words that modify the noun), they refer to those that specify quantity, making **Numeral Adjective** (a sub-type of Quantitative Adjective) the correct category.
The other options are incorrect:
* **a. Context:** A general term for the environment a word is used in, not a category of adjectives.
* **b. Intensifier:** A word (like *very* or *extremely*) that strengthens the meaning of an adjective or adverb.
* **d. All of Above:** Incorrect as only (c) applies.
51. Articles modify like
a. Adverbs
b. Adjectives
c. Noun Phrase
d. All of Above
Articles function similarly to adjectives because they modify or specify a noun or noun phrase. Therefore, the correct answer is b. Adjectives, as articles are classified as a type of adjective or determiner that functions as an adjective.
Explanation
Articles modify nouns: Articles like "the," "a," and "an" are determiners that come before nouns to make them more specific or general.
Like adjectives: Their function is comparable to adjectives, which describe or modify nouns and pronouns.
Not adverbs: Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, not nouns, so option (a) is incorrect.
Not noun phrases: While articles appear in noun phrases, they are not the entire phrase; rather, they modify it.
Limiting adjectives: Articles are sometimes referred to as "limiting adjectives" because they limit the meaning of a noun to one particular thing or a general one.
52. Firstly, to which of these language groups does English belong?
a. Baltic
b. Romance
c. Germanic
d. Slavonic
The earliest form of English (Old English) developed from the languages spoken by Germanic tribes (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes) who settled in Britain starting in the 5th century AD.
53. In the sentence 'I took my big brown cat to the vet yesterday', which of the following does not appear?
a. Adjective
b. Preposition
c. Adverb
d. Conjunction
The word that does not appear in the sentence "I took my big brown cat to the vet yesterday" is d. Conjunction.
Explanation:
Adjective: "big" and "brown" are adjectives describing the cat.
Preposition: "to" is a preposition indicating the location.
Adverb: "yesterday" is an adverb modifying the verb "took".
Conjunction: A conjunction would connect two clauses or words, like "and" or "but"; there is no conjunction in this sentence
54. English has no inflections for grammatical case.
a. True
b. False
While **Modern English** has significantly fewer case inflections than older forms of English (like Old English) or related languages (like German), it **does retain some inflections** for grammatical case, primarily in its **pronouns**.
* **Subjective Case (Nominative):** Used when the pronoun is the subject of a verb (e.g., **I, he, she, we, they**).
* **Objective Case (Accusative/Dative):** Used when the pronoun is the object of a verb or a preposition (e.g., **me, him, her, us, them**).
* **Possessive Case (Genitive):** Used to show ownership (e.g., **my/mine, his, her/hers, our/ours, their/theirs**).
For example, the pronoun forms change to reflect case:
| Case | Singular | Plural |
| :--- | :--- | :--- |
| **Subjective** | I | We |
| **Objective** | Me | Us |
| **Possessive** | My/Mine | Our/Ours |
The statement is false because these different forms of the pronoun (**I** vs. **me** vs. **my**) are clear examples of **case inflections** in English.
55. What is defined as 'the study of sentence structure'?
a. Morphology
b. Semantics
c. Phonology
d. Syntax
**Syntax** is the branch of linguistics concerned with the rules governing the structure of sentences. It dictates how words, phrases, and clauses combine to form grammatically correct sentences.
### Explanation of the Options
* **a. Morphology:** The study of the internal structure of words and the formation of words (e.g., how the plural **-s** is added to a noun).
* **b. Semantics:** The study of meaning in language.
* **c. Phonology:** The study of how sounds are organized and function in a language.
* **d. Syntax:** The study of how words are combined to form sentences and the structure of those sentences.
56. Three of these languages do not have definite articles. Which one does have a structure that serves the purpose of a definite article?
a. Russian
b. Finnish
c. Latin
d. Swedish
## Explanation
**Swedish** is a **Germanic** language, and like English, it distinguishes between definite (specific) and indefinite (non-specific) nouns. However, its definite article is not a separate, preceding word like *the*.
* **Definite Article Structure in Swedish:** The definite article is attached as a **suffix** to the end of the noun.
| Form | Noun | Meaning |
| :--- | :--- | :--- |
| **Indefinite** | *en **bok*** | "a book" |
| **Definite** | ***bok****-en* | "**the** book" |
## Languages Without Definite Articles
The other three languages listed are examples of languages that lack definite articles entirely:
* **a. Russian (Slavic):** Russian does not use articles. Specificity and non-specificity are determined by **word order** and **context**.
* **b. Finnish (Uralic):** Finnish does not use articles. Specificity is typically understood from **context** or through **pronouns/demonstratives**.
* **c. Latin (Italic):** Classical Latin had no definite article. Specificity was understood from **context**. (Modern Romance languages, which evolved from Latin, later developed articles).
57. In dialectology, what is the line on a map called which divides areas with different forms of a word?
a. Isobar
b. Isogloss
c. Isotherm
d. Isomer
## Explanation
* An **Isogloss** is a boundary line that marks the geographic limits of a particular linguistic feature, such as the pronunciation of a vowel, the use of a specific word (a **lexical isogloss**), or a certain grammatical construction. The word comes from the Greek *iso-* (meaning "equal") and *glossa* (meaning "tongue" or "language").
### Distinguishing from Other Terms
* **a. Isobar:** A line on a weather map connecting points of equal **atmospheric pressure**.
* **c. Isotherm:** A line on a map connecting points of equal **temperature**.
* **d. Isomer:** A chemical compound having the same formula but a different structure (a concept from **chemistry**, not geography or linguistics).. The sounds of a language change over time. English spelling does not always reflect this
change: how was the 'gh' in 'night' originally pronounced?
a. Like German 'ch' in 'ich', but voiced
b. Like English 'ch' in 'church'
c. Like English 'y' in 'yellow'
d. Like German 'ch' in 'ich'
The 'gh' in 'night' was originally pronounced like the **German 'ch' in 'ich'** (option **d**).
This sound is a **voiceless palatal fricative**, often represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) as /ç/.
## Pronunciation Evolution
* **Old and Middle English:** The sequence 'gh' was pronounced as a **velar fricative** /x/ (like the 'ch' in Scottish 'loch' or German 'Bach') or the **palatal fricative** /ç/ (like the 'ch' in German 'ich'). Words like *niht* (night) originally had this strong, guttural sound.
* **Later Change:** During the **Great Vowel Shift** and other phonetic changes in Early Modern English, this fricative sound was lost from the language in this position.
* In words like 'night,' 'light,' 'thought,' and 'high,' the 'gh' became **silent** (e.g., /naɪt/, /laɪt/, /θɔːt/, /haɪ/).
* In a few words, it changed to an **'f' sound** (IPA /f/), such as in 'enough' and 'cough.'
Therefore, the closest surviving sound to the original pronunciation of 'gh' in words like 'night' is the voiceless palatal fricative /ç/, as found in German 'ich'.
59. Which of these words describes the changing of the form of a verb in order to reflect person, number, tense and mood?
a. Declension
b. Inversion
c. Subordination
d. Conjugation
The correct word is **d. Conjugation**.
### Explanation
**Conjugation** refers to the changing of the form of a verb to reflect distinctions such as:
* **Person** (first, second, or third person)
* **Number** (singular or plural)
* **Tense** (past, present, future)
* **Mood** (indicative, imperative, subjunctive)
### What the Other Words Mean
* **a. Declension** is the changing of the form of a **noun, pronoun, or adjective** to indicate its grammatical case, number, or gender.
* **b. Inversion** is the reversal of the normal order of words in a sentence, most commonly the verb and the subject (e.g., "Never have I seen...").
* **c. Subordination** is the process of linking two clauses in a sentence so that one is dependent on the other (the subordinate clause), usually done with a subordinating conjunction (e.g., "because," "although," "while").
60. The combination of sounds 'ms-' is not acceptable as the beginning of a word or syllable in English. In which of these languages is it acceptable?
a. Dutch
b. French
c. Russian
d. Finnish
61. And finally... Old Norse is almost the same as which modern Scandinavian language?
a. Danish
b. Norwegian
c. Icelandic
d. Swedish
62. What is the study of language as it pertains to social classes, ethnic groups, and genders?
a. Psycholinguistics
b. Comparative Linguistics
c. Sociolinguistics
d. Linguistics
The study of language as it pertains to social classes, ethnic groups, and genders is **c. Sociolinguistics**.
## Explanation
**Sociolinguistics** specifically examines the relationship between language and society, focusing on how different social factors (such as class, ethnicity, age, and gender) influence language use and how language, in turn, reflects and shapes social structures.
* **Psycholinguistics** is the study of the psychological factors and neurological mechanisms involved in language acquisition, comprehension, and production.
* **Comparative Linguistics** is the study of language families and the comparison of languages to determine their historical relatedness.
* **Linguistics** is the broad scientific study of language itself. Sociolinguistics is a major sub-field of linguistics.
63. There is no connection between a linguistic form and its meaning describes
a. Duality
b. Arbitrariness
c. Displacement
d. Productivity
The concept that describes **no inherent connection between a linguistic form (the sound or symbol) and its meaning** is **b. Arbitrariness**.
### Explanation
**Arbitrariness** is a fundamental principle of modern linguistics, first clearly articulated by Ferdinand de Saussure.
* It means that the word we use for something (like the sounds /dɒg/ or the written word "dog") has no logical or physical connection to the actual four-legged animal. The connection is purely a matter of **social convention** agreed upon by speakers of the language.
* If the connection were *not* arbitrary, the word for "dog" would be the same in all languages (e.g., *perro* in Spanish, *chien* in French, *Hund* in German).
### Why the Other Options are Incorrect
* **a. Duality** (or **Double Articulation**) refers to the property that language is composed of two levels: a small number of meaningless sounds (phonemes) that combine to form a large number of meaningful units (morphemes and words).
* **c. Displacement** is the ability of language users to talk about things that are not physically present (things that are in the past, future, or in a distant location).
* **d. Productivity** (or **Creativity**) is the ability to use a finite set of linguistic elements (sounds, words) to produce a potentially infinite number of new and meaningful sentences.
64. We can utter new and novel words and sentences but animal can’t. It describes which property?
a. Duality
b. Arbitrariness
c. Displacement
d. Productivity
65. A little change in the sound can change the meaning describes which property of human language?
a. Duality
b. Displacement
c. Discreetness
d. Cultural Transmission
66. The smallest unit of speech sound is called
a. Morpheme
b. Phoneme
c. Lexeme
d. Allophone
67. The versions of one phone are called
a. Morpheme
b. Phoneme
c. Lexeme
d. Allophone
The versions of one **phoneme** are called **allophones** (d).
* **Allophone** (d): A variation in the pronunciation of a **phoneme** that does not change the meaning of a word. For example, the /p/ sound in "pin" is aspirated (puff of air), and the /p/ sound in "spin" is unaspirated. They are different versions (allophones) of the same phoneme /p/.
The other options are incorrect:
* **Morpheme** (a): The smallest unit of **meaning**.
* **Phoneme** (b): The smallest unit of **speech sound** that distinguishes meaning.
* **Lexeme** (c): The base form of a **word**.
68. The omission or deletion of some sound from a word is known as
a. Consonant Cluster
b. Elision
c. Assimilation
d. Syllable
Elision is a common feature of connected or natural speech where a sound is dropped to make the word or phrase easier and faster to pronounce.
Example: Saying "hist'ry" instead of "history," or "don't know" becoming "dunno."
Consonant Cluster (a): A group of consonants with no vowel in between (e.g., /st/ in stop, /gl/ in glass).
Assimilation (c): A sound changes to become more like a neighboring sound (e.g., the /n/ in in- becomes /m/ in impossible, to match the following /p/).
Syllable (d): A unit of pronunciation having one vowel sound, with or without surrounding consonants (e.g., the word "syllable" has three syllables: syl-la-ble).
69. When one part of a word is joined with other part of other word, we get a new word.This process is known as
a. Coinage
b. Calques
c. Blending
d. Compounding
70. When one part of a word is joined with other part of other word, we get a new word. Such type of words in linguistics terminology are called
a. Acronyms
b. Portmanteau
c. Palindrome
d. Slang
The correct term is **b. Portmanteau**.
Here's why:
* **Portmanteau:** A word created by **blending** the sounds and meanings of two different words, where one or both words are clipped. The question's description—"one part of a word is joined with other part of other word"—perfectly defines a portmanteau.
* *Example:* **Smog** (smoke + fog), **Brunch** (breakfast + lunch).
* **Acronyms:** Words formed from the initial letters of a phrase (e.g., **NASA**, **SCUBA**).
* **Palindrome:** A word or phrase that reads the same forwards and backwards (e.g., **level**, **madam**).
* **Slang:** Informal language, often used by a specific group, that changes over time (e.g., *cool*, *lit*).
71. If a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorten form ( for example; laboratory to lab, gasoline to gas, advertisement to ad) this process will be termed as
a. Compounding
b. Clipping
c. Hypocorism
d. Conversion
* **Clipping:** This is the process of reducing a word of more than one syllable to a shorter form. The shortened part retains the same meaning and belongs to the same word class.
* *Examples:* **laboratory** **lab**, **gasoline** **gas**, **advertisement** **ad**, **fanatic** **fan**, **telephone** **phone**.
* **Compounding:** Joining two complete words to form a new one (e.g., *sunflower*).
* **Hypocorism:** A specific type of clipping, usually forming a diminutive or pet name, often involving adding $\text{-y}$ or $\text{-ie}$ to the clipped form (e.g., *moving picture* *movie*, *barbecue* *barbie*). While $\text{lab}$ and $\text{gas}$ are forms of clipping, the general process is **Clipping**.
* **Conversion (or Zero Derivation):** Changing the function of a word without changing its form (e.g., using the noun **butter** as a verb: *to butter the toast*).
72. A change in the function of a word, when a noun is used as verb or a verb is used as a noun it is called
a. Compounding
b. Clipping
c. Hypocorism
d. Conversion
73. To form new words by attaching affixes with existing words is called
a. Abbreviation
b. Acronym
c. Conversion
d. Derivation
**Derivation** is the process of forming a new word by adding **affixes** (prefixes or suffixes) to a base or existing word. This often changes the grammatical category (part of speech) of the word.
* **Prefixes** are added to the beginning: **un**- + happy **unhappy** (changes meaning).
* **Suffixes** are added to the end: teach + **-er** $\rightarrow$ **teacher** (changes part of speech from verb to noun).
### Incorrect Options:
* **Abbreviation:** A shortened form of a word or phrase (e.g., $\text{Dr.}$ for Doctor).
* **Acronym:** A word formed from the first letters of other words (e.g., $\text{NASA}$).
* **Conversion:** Changing a word's function without changing its form (e.g., using the noun *access* as a verb).
74. A word or a group of word which has one meaning is called
a. Phoneme
b. Morpheme
c. Lexeme
d. Phone
A **lexeme** is a word or a group of words that functions as a single item in the vocabulary of a language and has one basic, distinct meaning, regardless of its grammatical variations.
* *Example:* The lexeme **RUN** includes all its grammatical forms: *run, running, ran, runs*. They all share the same core meaning.
### Incorrect Options
* **Phoneme:** The smallest unit of **sound** that can distinguish meaning (e.g., $\text{/p/}$ and $\text{/b/}$ in *pin* vs. *bin*).
* **Morpheme:** The smallest unit of **meaning** or grammatical function (e.g., the word *unbreakable* has three morphemes: **un-**, **break**, **-able**).
* **Phone:** A single speech **sound** (the physical realization of a phoneme).
75. The morphemes which are independent to give meaning and they can stand by as single words are called
a. Free morphemes
b. Bound morphemes
c. Inflectional morphemes
d. Derivational morphemes
The correct answer is **a. Free morphemes**.
**Free morphemes** are morphemes that can **stand alone** as complete words. They are independent and carry the core lexical meaning.
### Incorrect Options:
* **Bound morphemes:** Must be attached to another morpheme; they cannot stand alone as words (e.g., prefixes like *un-* or suffixes like *-ing* or *-ly*).
* **Inflectional morphemes:** A type of bound morpheme that signals grammatical function (e.g., plural $\text{-s}$, past tense $\text{-ed}$).
* **Derivational morphemes:** A type of bound morpheme that creates a new word by changing the meaning or the grammatical category of the base word (e.g., *-ness* turns an adjective into a noun, as in *happy* *happiness*).
76. The morphemes which are dependent to other words give meaning and they cannot stand by as single words are called
a. Free morphemes
b. Bound morphemes
c. Lexical morphemes
d. Derivational morphemes
77. All Affixes in English are:
a. Bound Morphemes
b. Free Morphemes
c. Lexical Morphemes
d. Independent Morphemes
78. English followed language for making rules of grammar
a. Greek
b. Latin
c. Dutch
d. Scottish
English grammar, particularly in its prescriptive rules (rules taught in school about how language *should* be used), has historically followed the models established for **Latin**. Early English grammarians often imposed the structures and rules of Latin onto English, even when they didn't naturally fit the Germanic nature of the language.
* **Example:** The famous "rule" against splitting an infinitive (e.g., *to boldly go*) was adopted because infinitives in Latin are single words and thus cannot be "split."
79. When the meaning of one form is included in the meaning of another form it is called
a. Hyponymy
b. Polysemy
c. Prototypes
d. Homonymy
**Hyponymy** is a relationship where the meaning of one word (the **hyponym**) is included in the meaning of a more general word (the **superordinate** or **hypernym**).
* **Superordinate (Hypernym):** A general term (e.g., $\text{flower}$).
* **Hyponym:** A specific term whose meaning is included in the general term (e.g., $\text{rose}$, $\text{tulip}$, $\text{daisy}$). The meaning of $\text{rose}$ *includes* the meaning of $\text{flower}$.
### Incorrect Options:
* **Polysemy:** A single word having multiple related meanings (e.g., $\text{head}$ can refer to a body part, the foam on a beer, or the person in charge).
* **Prototypes:** The best or most typical example of a category (e.g., a $\text{robin}$ is often considered a prototype for the category $\text{bird}$).
* **Homonymy:** Two or more words that have the same form (spelling and/or pronunciation) but unrelated meanings (e.g., $\text{bank}$ - a financial institution vs. $\text{bank}$ - the side of a river).
80. Words frequently occurring together are termed as (examples; husband and wife, salt pepper)
a. Synecdoche
b. Metonymy
c. Collocation
d. Polysemy
## Explanation
* **Collocation** refers to a sequence of words or terms that naturally go together, often sounding "right" to native speakers. Examples include:
* **husband and wife**
* **salt and pepper**
* *heavy rain*
* *make a mistake*
* *fast food*
* The other options are figures of speech or linguistic concepts:
* **Synecdoche** is a figure of speech in which a part is made to represent the whole or vice versa (e.g., "wheels" for a car).
* **Metonymy** is a figure of speech in which a thing or concept is referred to by the name of something closely associated with that thing or concept (e.g., "The Crown" for the monarchy).
* **Polysemy** is the coexistence of many possible meanings for a single word or phrase (e.g., the word "bank" can mean a financial institution or the side of a river).
81. The study of intended speaker meaning is called:
a. Semantics
b. Syntax
c. Pragmatics
d. Grammar
Pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics that studies how context contributes to meaning. It focuses on the meaning conveyed by a speaker and interpreted by a listener, going beyond the literal meaning of the words themselves (which is the domain of semantics). It deals with how people use language to achieve certain goals.
82. The set of words used in the same phrase or sentence is called linguistics context. It is also known as
a. Co-Text
b. Dixie
c. Anaphora
d.Inference
## Explanation
* **Co-Text** refers to the surrounding text or words that come immediately before and after a specific word or phrase. This linguistic environment helps determine the meaning of the word. For example, in the sentence "The **bank** is muddy," the co-text ("muddy") helps clarify that "bank" refers to the river bank, not a financial institution.
* The other options are related linguistic terms but have different meanings:
* **Dixie** is not a standard term in this context. It is an informal term for the southeastern US.
* **Anaphora** is a type of linguistic reference where an expression's interpretation depends on another expression in the same text (e.g., using a pronoun like "it" to refer back to a noun already mentioned).
* **Inference** is a conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning, especially in the context of pragmatics (making a logical assumption about the speaker's intended meaning).
83. Linkage of ideas in a text is called
a. Cohesion
b. Coherence
c. Anaphora
d. Co-Text
The linkage of ideas in a text is called "cohesion".
Explanation: Cohesion refers to how sentences and ideas are connected within a text using words, phrases, and grammatical structures to create a smooth flow.
Key points about the other options:
Coherence: While related to cohesion, coherence refers to the overall logical flow and organization of ideas in a text. It's about how well the ideas connect on a conceptual level.
Anaphora: This is a specific type of rhetorical device where a word or phrase is repeated at the beginning of several sentences to emphasize a point.
Co-text: This refers to the surrounding text that helps to define the meaning of a word or phrase.
84. What is difference between acquisition of a language and learning of a language?
a. Learning is natural while acquisition is conscious way of getting language
b. Acquisition is natural and learning is conscious effort to get knowledge.
c. Acquisition focuses on grammar while learning not
d. None
## Explanation
* **Language Acquisition** is generally considered the **natural, subconscious** process of picking up a language through exposure and communication, similar to how children develop their first language. It focuses on meaning and fluency. ��️
* **Language Learning** is typically viewed as the **conscious, intentional** study of a language, often within a formal setting (like a classroom). It involves studying grammar rules, vocabulary lists, and actively trying to memorize and apply them. ��
85. A particular form of a language which is peculiar to a specific region or social group is called
a. Accent
b. Dialect
c. Bilingualism
d. Pidgin
## Explanation
A **dialect** is a particular form of a language that is **peculiar to a specific region or social group**. It often differs from the standard form of the language in terms of vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.
* **Accent** refers only to the distinctive way a language is **pronounced** by a particular group.
* **Bilingualism** is the ability to speak two languages.
* **Pidgin** is a grammatically simplified means of communication that develops between two or more groups that do not have a language in common.
86. Who gave the concept of competence and performance?
a. Chomsky
b. Sapir
c. D e Saussure
d. Watson
Noam Chomsky, in his work on Generative Grammar, particularly Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965), introduced the fundamental distinction:
Competence: A speaker's idealized, unconscious knowledge of their language (the system of rules, or grammar). It's what a speaker knows.
Performance: The actual use of language in concrete situations, which is affected by factors like memory limitations, distractions, hesitations, and errors. It's what a speaker does.
This distinction is often compared to Ferdinand de Saussure's earlier dichotomy of langue (the language system, similar to competence) and parole (individual speech acts, similar to performance)
87. The forms of verb ‘to be” (is, are, am, was, were) are technically known as
a. Anaphora
b. Aphasia
c. Copula
d. Cataphora
The forms of the verb "to be" (**is, are, am, was, were**, etc.) are technically known as the **copula** (or copular verb, or linking verb) when they connect the subject of a sentence to a complement (a noun, adjective, or phrase) that describes or identifies the subject.
* **Copula (or Copular Verb):** A verb used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate (e.g., *She **is** a doctor. They **were** happy.*). The verb "to be" is the most common copula.
* **Anaphora:** The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences.
* **Aphasia:** The loss of ability to understand or express speech, caused by brain damage.
* **Cataphora:** The use of a term or phrase that co-refers with a later term or phrase in the discourse (e.g., *Although **she** was late, Mary* still finished the race).
88. In the sentence “The fat man ate food,” which part is the noun phrase?
a. Man
b. Ate
c. The fat man
d. At food
A **noun phrase (NP)** is a group of words built around a noun or pronoun. In this sentence:
* **The fat man** is the complete noun phrase acting as the **subject** of the sentence.
* **man** is the **head noun**.
* **The fat** is the pre-modifier (article and adjective) modifying the head noun.
* **Ate** is the verb.
* **food** is the head noun of the object NP (which is just "food," or "the food" if you include a determiner).
* "At food" is not a part of the original sentence.
89. Phonemes that have alternative phonetic realizations are called ______________.
a. Rhyme
b. Onset
c. minimal pair
d. Allophones
Allophones are the different phonetic realizations (pronunciations) of a single phoneme in a particular language.
A phoneme is an abstract mental unit of sound that can distinguish words (e.g., /t/ in English).
An allophone is the actual physical sound produced in speech. For instance, the /t/ sound in English has two common allophones:
Aspirated [t h] (with a puff of air) in words like top.
Unaspirated [t] (without a puff of air) in words like stop.
Since substituting [t h] for [t] doesn't change the word's meaning in English, they are considered allophones of the same phoneme /t/.
90. There is a joining of two separate words to produce a single form, technically known as------------:
a. Compounding
b. Blending
c. Clipping
d. Borrowing
91. Human language is organized at two levels simultaneously. This property is called.
a) Productivity
b) Dual sound
c) Reference
d) Duality
The property of human language that is organized at two levels simultaneously is called **Duality of Patterning** (or simply **Duality**).
. **First Level (Sound/Phonology):** A small number of meaningless speech sounds (**phonemes**) are used. These sounds are distinct and limited (e.g., the sounds /b/, /r/, /ʌ/, /n/, /tʃ/ in English).
2. **Second Level (Meaning/Morphology & Syntax):** These meaningless sounds are combined to form a vast number of meaningful units (**morphemes** and **words**), which can then be combined into sentences. For example, the four distinct sounds in the word "spin" are meaningless on their own but combine to form a meaningful word.
This dual structure is what makes human language so powerful, allowing us to generate an enormous number of messages from a very limited set of basic sounds.
* **a) Productivity (or Creativity):** This is the capacity of human language users to create an infinite number of new and unique sentences, often never heard before, from a finite set of grammatical rules and words.
* **b) Dual sound:** This is not a technical term in linguistics.
* **c) Reference:** This is the property that linguistic forms (like words) symbolize objects and concepts in the real world.
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