PHD LINGUISTICS NUML ISLAMABAD SAMPLE PAPER

]Subject Specific (MCQs)

1. A dialect is:

(a) A corrupt form of a standard language

(b) A regional or social variety of a language

(d) All of the above

Explanation: A dialect is a version of a language that is spoken in a specific area or by a particular group of people, and it differs from the standard form of the language in terms of pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar.

2. Native speakers of a language generally:

(a) Consider it as their own property

(b) Consider themselves expert in it

(d) All of the above

Do not resent others learning it: This is the most accurate generalization. Learning a new language is almost always viewed as a positive act. It's a sign of respect and interest in a culture, and most native speakers are happy to encourage and help learners.

3. In Kachru’s World Englishes circles, students in the Expanding Circle learn English as a:

(a) First language

(b) Second language

(d) Foreign language

Here is a graph representing Braj Kachru's "Three Circles" model of World Englishes.

## Kachru's Three Circles Model

The model consists of three concentric circles, each representing a different way English is used and has spread globally.

### 1. The Inner Circle ��

This is the core of the model. It includes countries where English is the **primary language**, a legacy of the first diaspora of English speakers from the UK. These nations are considered **"norm-providing"** because they set the standards for what is considered "correct" English.

* **Countries:** UK, USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland.

* **Role of English:** First language (L1).

### 2. The Outer Circle ��

This circle includes countries where English has an official or historical role due to colonial history. It is often used as a **second language** for administration, education, and national communication. These nations are considered **"norm-developing"** as they have developed their own distinct varieties of English.

* **Countries:** India, Nigeria, Singapore, Pakistan, the Philippines.

* **Role of English:** Second language (L2).

### 3. The Expanding Circle ��

This is the largest and most dynamic circle. It includes countries where English has no official status but is widely learned as a **foreign language** for international communication, business, and education. These nations are considered **"norm-dependent"** as they rely on the standards set by the Inner and Outer Circles.

* **Countries:** China, Japan, Russia, Brazil, most of Europe.

* **Role of English:** Foreign language (EFL).

4. A specific variety of a language is adopted to act as the standard language mainly because of:

(a) Structural reasons

(b) Sociopolitical reasons

(d) All of the above

A standard language is adopted primarily due to social and political factors. This variety is often associated with prestige, power, and the dominant social group. It's widely used in education, media, government, and literature. This usage reinforces its status as the standard. Factors like the economic power of the region speaking the dialect, or the dialect being used in government and education, contribute significantly to its selection as standard.

5. A corpus is a large, principled collection of ____________ occurring examples of

language stored electronically:

(a) Frequently

(b) Naturally

(d) WThe correct answer is **(b) Naturally**.

A corpus is a large, principled collection of **naturally** occurring examples of

language, stored electronically. The key characteristic is that the language examples are authentic, taken from real-world contexts like books, newspapers, spoken conversations, and websites. This allows linguists to study how language is actually used, not just how it's supposed to be used.writing-based

6. Clinical linguistics is the branch of linguistics that applies linguistic concepts and theories to the study of language __________:

(a) Disorders

(b) Complexity

(d) Theory

Clinical linguistics is the branch of linguistics that applies linguistic concepts and theories to the study of language disorders. It is a subfield that uses linguistic analysis to better understand, diagnose, and treat a variety of communication problems, such as aphasia (language loss due to brain damage), stuttering, or developmental language delays.

7. TESOL stands for:

(e) Test of English as a Second Language

(f) Teaching English as a Second Language

(g) Teaching English to Speakers of Outer Languages

(h) Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages

8. In Kachru’s World Englishes circles, students in the Outer Circle learn English as a:

(e) First language

(f) Second language

(g) Only language

(h) Foreign language

9. ELF stands for:

(a) English as a Lingua Franca

(b) English as a Foreign Language

(d) English Learning Forum

ELF stands for English as a Lingua Franca. This term describes the use of English as a communication tool between people from different first language backgrounds, particularly in international or transnational settings where English may not be the native language of any of the participants.

10. Sociolinguistic Competence refers to knowledge of the _______ where communication takes place.

(a) Social context

(b) Political context

(d) Content

Sociolinguistic competence refers to knowledge of the social context where communication takes place. This includes understanding social norms, the relationship between speakers, formality, politeness, and the specific setting, allowing for appropriate language use in different situations.

11. Which of the following definitions best describes “language acquisition”?

(a) The process by which a society’s vernacular varies

(b) The process by which linguistics are applied to sociology

(d) None of the above

The best definition for "language acquisition" is (c) the process by which the linguistic ability develops in a human. This term refers to the way humans naturally learn language, a process that is often distinct from formal language learning or instruction. ��️

Language acquisition is a complex cognitive process that enables humans to acquire and use language. There are two primary types:

First-language acquisition: This refers to a child's natural, unconscious acquisition of their native language(s). This process is remarkably efficient and largely occurs without explicit instruction.

Second-language acquisition: This describes the learning of an additional language after the native one has been established. This can be either a naturalistic process (like immersion) or a formal one (like classroom instruction).

12. What do we call linguistics when it tries to solve problems in other domains?

(a) Speech sciences

(b) Communication studies

(d) Applied linguistics

Explanation: Applied linguistics is the field of study that uses linguistic knowledge to solve practical problems in various areas like education, language acquisition, translation, and communication.

13. Which of the following definitions is consistent with Arbitrariness?

(a) Messages are projected in all possible directions and can be received by any who are listening

(b) Messages are not restricted to a specific time

(d) Language acquisition occurs through exposure to the culture

The principle of arbitrariness, one of the key design features of language, states that there is no natural or intrinsic connection between a word's sound or form and the object, idea, or concept it represents. For example, there's nothing about the physical object "tree" that makes the sound "tree" necessary to describe it. Different languages use entirely different sounds (e.g., árbol in Spanish, arbre in French, Baum in German) for the same concept, which proves this point.

14. Acoustic phonetics is the study of

(a)The production of speech sounds in languages

(b)The generation of speech sounds by robots

(d)The perception of speech sounds by humans

Acoustic phonetics is a branch of phonetics that focuses on the physical characteristics of speech sounds, like their frequency, amplitude, and duration, as they are transmitted through the air. It analyzes the sound wave signals generated during speech production, essentially studying how speech sounds are objectively measured and described in terms of their physical properties.

15. The use of the verb google in the phrase ‘google it’ represents a case of word formation via:

(a)Borrowing

(b)Coinage

(c)Conversion

(d)Derivation

Conversion, also known as zero derivation, is a word formation process where a word changes its word class without any change to its form. In this case, the proper noun Google (referring to the search engine) is used as a verb google (meaning to search for something online). ��

16. The bound morpheme er acts as an inflectional morpheme in

(a)Actor

(b)Character

c) Quieter

(d)Writer

### Inflectional vs. Derivational Morphemes

* **Inflectional Morphemes**: These morphemes are added to a word to express grammatical functions like tense, number, and degree. They don't change the word's part of speech. English has a limited set of inflectional morphemes, such as **-s** (for plural nouns), **-ed** (for past tense verbs), **-ing** (for present participle verbs), **-er** (for comparative adjectives), and **-est** (for superlative adjectives).

* **Derivational Morphemes**: These morphemes are added to a word to create a new word with a different meaning or grammatical category. They can often change the word's part of speech (e.g., a verb to a noun). For example, adding **-ness** to the adjective **happy** creates the noun **happiness**.

17. If a syntactic rule is applied more than once in generating a sentence then this is known as:

(a)Movement

(b)Transformation

(c)Recursion

(d)Complementation

When a syntactic rule is applied more than once in generating a sentence, it's known as recursion. This is a fundamental concept in linguistics, allowing for the creation of infinitely long and complex sentences from a finite set of rules. An example of recursion is embedding a phrase within a phrase of the same type, such as adding a new clause to an existing one.

18. When the meaning of one form is included in another, the relationship between them is described as:

(a) Antonymy

(b) Synonymy

(d) Polysemy

Hyponymy is a semantic relationship where the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of a more general word. The more specific word is called the hyponym, and the more general word is called the hypernym (or superordinate).

For example:

Dog is a hyponym of animal. The meaning of "dog" includes the meaning of "animal" because all dogs are animals.

Rose is a hyponym of flower. The meaning of "rose" includes the meaning of "flower".

Car is a hyponym of vehicle.

19. The knowledge of the physical context of the speaker is necessary to make sense of the

(a)Deictic expressions

(b)Presupposition

(c)Reference

(d) Entailment

Deictic Expressions: These are words like this, that, here, there, I, you, now, and then. Their meaning is relative. For example, if someone says, "I'm coming over there now," you need to know who "I" is, where "there" is, and when "now" is to understand the full meaning.

Presupposition: This is an assumption the speaker makes about what the listener already knows. It's a type of background knowledge rather than physical context. For example, in the sentence "The King of France is bald," the speaker is presupposing that a King of France exists.

Reference: This is the act of using a linguistic expression to identify a person, thing, or concept. While context can help with reference, it's not strictly physical. For example, "The man with the red hat" refers to a specific person, but this can be understood even if you can't physically see the person.

Entailment: This is a relationship between two sentences where if the first sentence is true, the second sentence must also be true. For example, "The cat is on the mat" entails "The cat is on the floor." This is a logical relationship and doesn't depend on the physical co```````````ntext of the speaker.

Which one of the following is a feature of speakers rather than their speech Cohesion

(a) Coherence

(b) Entailment

Explanation: Deixis refers to words or phrases that depend on the context of the speech act for their meaning. This includes things like "this," "that," "here," "there," "now," and "you". Since these words rely on the speaker's situation and perspective to be understood, they are considered a feature of the speaker's communication style.

20. The term Interlanguage refers to

(a) A language which is a mixture of two languages

(b) A system of rules used by the speakers of a language

(d) A system of rules generated by the speakers of L1 who are learning L2

Interlanguage is a term in second-language acquisition that describes the linguistic system a learner develops while they are learning a new language (L2). This system is distinct from both the learner's native language (L1) and the target language (L2). It is a transitional system of rules that is constantly changing as the learner gains more knowledge of the L2. It is characterized by the learner's own unique set of grammatical rules, which often include elements from their L1 and overgeneralizations of rules from the L2.

21. Which one of the following constitutes an Adjacency Pair in Conversation Analysis?

(a) Two similar questions asked in rapid succession

(b) A mechanism used to repair an embarrassing mistake

(d) Two linked phases of conversation

What is an Adjacency Pair?

In conversation analysis, an adjacency pair is a sequence of two utterances spoken by two different speakers. These utterances are ordered as a first and second part, and the first part requires the second part to follow. The two parts are functionally related, meaning the first utterance creates an expectation for a specific type of response.

Examples of Adjacency Pairs

Question-Answer: "What time is it?" - "It's 10:30."

Greeting-Greeting: "Hello!" - "Hi there!"

Request-Acceptance/Refusal: "Could you pass the salt?" - "Sure, here you go."

Apology-Acceptance: "I'm so sorry." - "That's okay."

22. Which one of the following statements is true of discourse?

a) Discourse could be found in interview data

b) Discourse is how language operates in real life communicative events

c) Discourse is language at a level which is broader than a sentence

d) All of these

23. The co-existence of two different varieties of language in a society which differ in their social status is known as

a) Multiculturalism

b) Pidginization

c) Linguistic relativity

d) Diglossia

**Diglossia** is a sociolinguistic term describing a situation where two distinct varieties of the same language are used in a single society. These varieties have different functions and social statuses: a "high" variety (H) is used in formal settings like government, education, and religion, while a "low" variety (L) is used for everyday conversations and informal communication.

Here is an example:

* **H variety**: Classical Arabic, used for formal writing and religious texts.

* **L variety**: Local dialects of Arabic (e.g., Egyptian, Lebanese), used for daily conversation.

* **a) Multiculturalism**: Refers to the co-existence of different cultures within a single society, not specifically language varieties.

* **b) Pidginization**: This is the process of a simplified language (a pidgin) developing between groups that do not share a common language.

* **c) Linguistic relativity**: Also known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, this is the idea that the structure of a language influences its speakers' worldview or cognition.

24. A hybrid language which develops its own grammar and vocabulary and also acquires the status of the native language of a group of speakers is knows as a/n

a) Pidgin

b) Sign language

c) Anti-language

d) Creole

A creole language is a stable, natural language that develops from the mixing of different languages, often starting as a pidgin. Unlike a pidgin, which is a simplified form of communication used for a specific purpose (like trade), a creole becomes a complete, fully-developed language with its own established grammar and vocabulary. Most importantly, it is acquired by a community of speakers as their native or first language, which is the key distinction from a pidgin.

Key point: The crucial difference between a pidgin and a creole is that a creole is a fully developed language with its own grammatical rules and lexicon, while a pidgin is a more simplified communication system.

27. The most important factor(s) affecting the proceedings of a qualitative research is

a) The belief about the nature of the social world

b) The nature of knowledge and how it can be acquired

c) The purpose and goals of the research

d) All of the above

28. Which type of research is likely to make use of non-standardized, adaptable methods of data generation?

(a) Mixed research

(b) Qualitative research

(d) None of the above

Qualitative research focuses on understanding phenomena through the exploration of experiences, perspectives, and meanings. Because the goal is to gain an in-depth understanding of a specific context or group, researchers often use flexible and adaptable methods.

Non-standardized methods: This means the data collection tools are not rigid. For example, in-depth interviews may not follow a strict script; the researcher can adapt questions based on the participant's responses.

29. Quantitative research is best described as

(a) The collection of non numeric data

(b) An attempt to confirm the researcher’s hypotheses

(d) Research that attempts to generate a new theory

Quantitative research is a research strategy that focuses on quantifying the collection and analysis of numerical data. Its primary goal is to test and confirm hypotheses and theories, rather than exploring new ideas or generating new theories.

This is a core characteristic of quantitative research. Researchers typically start with a specific theory or hypothesis and then use structured methods like surveys, experiments, and statistical analysis to collect numerical data and test whether the data supports or refutes their initial hypothesis. For example, a researcher might hypothesize that "there is a positive relationship between study hours and exam scores." They would then collect data (e.g., number of study hours, exam scores) from a large sample to see if a statistically significant relationship exists.

30. An entity which can have different values is known as

(a) A cause-and-effect relationship

(b) A variable

(d) A descriptive relationship

A variable is an entity that can take on different values. In contrast, a constant is an entity that remains unchanged. In research and mathematics, variables are essential for representing quantities that can vary, allowing for the study of relationships between different factors.

31. Which one of the following best describes a research design?

(a) A framework for every stage of the collection and analysis of data

(b) The style in which you present your research findings, e.g. a graph

(d) A way of conducting research that is not grounded in theory

A research design is a detailed plan or blueprint for how a research study will be conducted. It acts as a comprehensive framework that outlines the methods and procedures for collecting, measuring, and analyzing data to answer the research question.

32. A variable which can affect a change on another variable is known as

(a) Intervening variable

(b) Independent variable

(d) Dependent variable

Independent Variable

An independent variable is the variable that is changed or manipulated by the researcher to see if it causes an effect on another variable. It's the "cause" in a cause-and-effect relationship.

Example: In an experiment testing how different amounts of sunlight affect plant growth, the amount of sunlight is the independent variable. The researcher controls and changes the amount of light to observe its effect

33. ‘The president of Utopia smokes.’ In the given sentence, the constituent ‘smokes’ serves

as ___________________.

a. a predicate

b. a complement

c. an argument

d. a direct object*.

### Understanding the Terms

* **Predicate**: In linguistics, the **predicate** is the part of a sentence that modifies the subject. It includes the verb and all the words that follow it and relate to it. In the sentence "The president of Utopia smokes," the subject is "The president of Utopia," and the predicate is "smokes." The predicate tells us what the subject is doing or what state it is in.

*Complement**: A **complement** is a word, phrase, or clause that's needed to complete the meaning of a given expression. For instance, in "She is happy," "happy" is a subject complement that describes "She." "Smokes" doesn't complete the meaning of "The president of Utopia," but rather, it's the core action of the predicate.

* **Argument**: An **argument** is a phrase or clause that's necessary to complete the meaning of a predicate. In the sentence "She baked a cake," both "she" (the subject) and "a cake" (the direct object) are arguments of the verb "baked." "Smokes" is not an argument in this sentence; it's the predicate itself, which doesn't require any additional arguments to be a complete thought.

* **Direct Object**: A **direct object** is a noun or pronoun that receives the action of a transitive verb. For example, in "He kicked the ball," "the ball" is the direct object. The verb "smokes" in this context is an intransitive verb, meaning it doesn't take a direct object. Therefore, "smokes" cannot be a direct object.

34. ‘The student reads a book in the library.’ In the given sentence, the constituent ‘in the library’ is ___________________.

a. a complement

b. an argument

c. an adjunct

d. a predicate

Adjunct: An adjunct is a constituent of a sentence that provides additional information about the time, place, manner, or reason of the action, but is not essential for the sentence's grammatical completeness. The phrase "in the library" modifies the verb "reads" by specifying the location. The sentence "The student reads a book" is grammatically complete without it.

35. ‘Mary knows John smokes.’ In the given sentence, the constituent ‘John smokes’ is ____________________.

a. a principal clause

b. a root clause

c. an independent clause

d. a complement clause

* **Complement Clause**: A **complement clause** is a subordinate clause that functions as an argument of a verb, noun, or adjective, completing its meaning. In the sentence "Mary knows John smokes," the entire clause "**John smokes**" serves as the direct object of the verb "**knows**." The verb "knows" requires an object to complete its meaning, and in this case, that object is a clause, making it a complement clause.

* **Principal Clause**: A **principal clause** (or main clause) is the independent clause in a sentence that contains the main subject and verb. ."John smokes" is not the main clause here, as it is dependent on the verb "knows".

* **Root Clause**: A **root clause** is another term for a main or independent clause, a clause that is not embedded within another.

* **Independent Clause**: An **independent clause** is a group of words that can stand alone as a complete sentence. While "**John smokes**" is grammatically an independent clause on its own, its function **within the larger sentence** is to act as a complement to the verb "knows." Therefore, its role is best described as a complement clause.

36. ‘John couldn’t remember what pills to take.’ In the given sentence, the constituent ‘what pills to take’ is ___________________.

a. a finite clause

b. a non-finite clause

c. a root clause

d. a principal clause

A non-finite clause is a clause that does not have a finite verb (a verb that shows tense, person, and number). In the given sentence, "what pills to take" does not have a finite verb. It functions as the object of the verb "remember," and the non-finite verb "to take" modifies the noun "pills."

Why other options are incorrect:

a. a finite clause:

A finite clause has a finite verb and can stand alone as a sentence. Since "what pills to take" cannot stand alone as a sentence, it is not a finite clause.

c. a root clause:

A root clause is the main clause of a sentence. It contains the subject and the finite verb. The root clause in this sentence is "John couldn't remember." "what pills to take" is a dependent clause modifying the root clause.

d. a principal clause:

A principal clause is another term for a root clause. Since "what pills to take" is not the root clause, it is not a principal clause

37. A finite clause can have a __________________ pronoun as its subject.

a. nominative

b. accusative

c. demonstrative

d. Genitive

A finite clause can have a **nominative** pronoun as its subject.

The subject of a verb in a finite clause is always in the **nominative case** (also known as the subjective case). This is the grammatical case used for a noun or pronoun that is the subject of a verb. For example, in the sentence "She runs," the pronoun "she" is the subject and is in the nominative case. Other nominative pronouns include:

* **I**

* **we**

* **he**

* **they**

* **who**

* **Accusative** pronouns (e.g., *me, him, her, them*) are used for the direct object of a verb or the object of a preposition.e.g., me, him, her, them) * **Demonstrative** pronouns (e.g., *this, that, these, those*) are used to point to specific things.

* **Genitive** pronouns (e.g., *mine, yours, his, hers*) are used to show possession.

38. ‘They accept the theory that the world is flat.’ In the given sentence, the underlined constituent is an example of _______________.

a. a relative clause

b. an adverbial clause

c. a complement clause

d. a main clause

The correct answer is **c. a complement clause**.

### Explanation

In the sentence, the underlined constituent **'that the world is flat'** is a **complement clause**. It functions as a **complement** to the noun **'theory'**. It provides content or a full description of the noun it follows. This type of clause is also known as a **noun complement clause**.

* **Relative Clause**: A relative clause modifies a noun by giving more information about it, but it typically starts with a relative pronoun like *who, which, whose,* or *that* (when it can be replaced by *which*). For example, "the book *that* I read" is a relative clause. In this case, 'that' introduces the content of the theory, not an attribute of it.

* **Adverbial Clause**: An adverbial clause modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb, and it provides information about time, place, reason, or condition (e.g., "I went home *when it started to rain*").

* **Main Clause**: The main clause of the sentence is "They accept the theory," which can stand alone as a complete sentence. The underlined clause is embedded within it.

39. ‘She was bitten by a spider.’ In this sentence, the underlined constituent is

_________________.

a. an indirect object

b. an oblique object

c. a direct object

d. an adjunct

An adjunct: This is the correct term. An adjunct is a non-essential phrase or clause that adds extra information to a sentence. While "by a spider" provides crucial information about who did the biting, the sentence "She was bitten" is still grammatically complete without it. This optionality is a key characteristic of an adjunct. The agent phrase in a passive voice construction is a classic example of an adjunct.

40. ‘He has gone.’ In the given sentence, the auxiliary ‘has’ is _____________________.

a. an aspect auxiliary

b. a voice auxiliary

c. a tense auxiliary

d. a modal auxiliary

An aspect auxiliary:

This type of auxiliary verb helps express the ongoing (continuous/progressive) or completed (perfect) state of an action. For example, in the sentence "She is working," the auxiliary "is" indicates a continuous action, the same as "She has finished," where "has" indicates a completed action.

A voice auxiliary:

This auxiliary verb indicates whether the subject of the verb performs the action (active voice) or receives the action (passive voice). For example, in "The data were analyzed," the auxiliary verb "were" helps form the passive voice.

A tense auxiliary:

This type of auxiliary verb helps to form the time reference of a verb, such as past, present, or future tense. For example, the auxiliary "will" in "They will dance" forms the future tense.

A modal auxiliary:

These specific auxiliary verbs express possibility, capability, willingness, obligation, or permission. Examples include "can," "may," "must," "will," and "should".

Essentially, the question lists different grammatical categories to which auxiliary verbs contribute, and all are valid functions of auxiliary verbs

41. Most good comedians tell some bad jokes. The underlined words in the given sentence belong to the category ___________________.

a. adjectives

b. quantifiers

c. complementizers

d. Adverbs

The underlined words most, some, and bad belong to the category quantifiers.Quantifiers are a type of determiner that express a quantity or amount. They tell us how much or how many of something there is

a. adjectives: While "good" is an adjective, it describes the noun "comedians," not the quantity. "Most" is the quantifier.

c. complementizers: Complementizers are words that introduce a clause that functions as a complement to a verb, like "that" or "whether." There are no complementizers in this sentence.

d. adverbs: Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, indicating how, when, where, why, or to what degree something happens. "Most" is not modifying a verb, adjective, or another adverb; it modifies the noun "comedians

42. In addition to their uninflected base form, ________________ typically have up to four different inflected forms.

a. adverbs

b. adjectives

c. verbs

d. Nouns

Verbs typically have up to four different inflected forms in addition to their base form. These inflected forms express different tenses, aspects, moods, and voices. The forms are:

Base Form: The infinitive form (e.g., walk).

-s Form: The third-person singular present tense (e.g., walks).

-ed Form: The simple past tense and past participle (e.g., walked).

-ing Form: The present participle (e.g., walking).

Past Participle (for irregular verbs): A distinct form from the simple past (e.g., eaten vs. ate). For regular verbs, the past tense and past participle are the same.

43. According to Chomsky, the study of language is part of the wider study of

__________________.

a. grammar

b. language acquisition

c. cognition

d. Behavior

According to Noam Chomsky, the study of language is not just about grammar or language acquisition in isolation, but is part of the broader study of **cognition**. He argued that language is a fundamental and innate human faculty, a "mental organ," and its study provides a window into the structure of the human mind.

Chomsky's work was a key part of the "cognitive revolution" in the mid-20th century, which shifted the focus of psychology and linguistics away from behaviorism (which viewed language as a learned behavior) and toward the internal, mental processes of the mind. He proposed that humans are born with a "Universal Grammar," a set of innate principles that guide language acquisition. This innate knowledge is a specific component of our cognitive system, and understanding it helps us understand how the human mind works more broadly.

44. The hypothesis that the course of language acquisition is determined by an innate language faculty is known popularly as_______________.

a. operant conditioning

b. innateness hypothesis

c. critical period hypothesis

d. Constructivism

The **innateness hypothesis**, primarily associated with Noam Chomsky, is the theory that humans are born with an innate ability for language. This means that a child's brain isn't a blank slate when it comes to language, but rather, it comes pre-equipped with a "language faculty," also known as a **Language Acquisition Device (LAD)**. This innate faculty contains a **Universal Grammar**—a set of fundamental principles that all human languages share. The hypothesis argues that this built-in knowledge is what allows children to acquire complex language so quickly and effortlessly, despite receiving what Chomsky called "poverty of the stimulus," or incomplete and often flawed language input from their environment.

* **a. Operant Conditioning:** This is a behaviorist theory, most famously associated with B.F. Skinner. It proposes that language is learned through a series of reinforcements and punishments, similar to how an animal might be trained. It fundamentally opposes the idea of an innate language faculty.

* **c. Critical Period Hypothesis:** While it supports the innateness hypothesis, the critical period hypothesis is a separate theory. It suggests that there's a specific window of time in early childhood when a child can acquire language with native-like fluency. After this period (usually thought to end around puberty), it becomes much more difficult to achieve full proficiency.

* **d. Constructivism:** This is a learning theory, with key figures like Jean Piaget, that argues knowledge is "constructed" by learners through experiences and social interaction. In the context of language, it would suggest that children build their understanding of language through interactions with their environment and their cognitive development, rather than from an innate, pre-wired faculty.

45. ___________________ language spoken by the inhabitants of the Dutch province of

Friesland and the islands off the west coast of Schleswig, is the language most nearly related to Modern English.

a. Frisian

b. Dutch

c. Danish

d. Swedish

Frisian is the language most closely related to Modern English. Both languages belong to the **West Germanic** branch of the **Germanic** language family. They share a common linguistic ancestor, **Proto-Germanic**, and have a lot of similar vocabulary and grammatical structures. A famous saying that highlights their close relationship is: "As **the crow flies**, Frisian and English are two branches of a single stem."

46. ___________________, which has changed little over the last thousand years, is the

living language most nearly resembling Old English in grammatical structure.

a. German

b. Scots

c. Modern English

d. Icelandic

Icelandic, a North Germanic language, is the living language that most closely resembles Old English in its grammatical structure. While Modern English has lost most of its inflections (word endings that indicate grammatical function), Icelandic has retained a complex system of grammatical cases (nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive) and three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter), which were also features of Old English. The geographical isolation of Iceland and a strong linguistic purist movement have contributed to the language's remarkable preservation over the last thousand years.

47. How many stops (plosives) are there among the 24 consonants in English?

a. five

b. six

c. seven

d. Eight

There are **six** stop (plosive) consonants among the 24 consonants in most models of English phonology.

## English Plosive Consonants

The six plosive consonants in English are:

1. **$/p/$** (voiceless bilabial stop, as in **p**ie)

2. **$/b/$** (voiced bilabial stop, as in **b**uy)

3. **$/t/$** (voiceless alveolar stop, as in **t**ie)

4. **$/d/$** (voiced alveolar stop, as in **d**ie)

5. **$/k/$** (voiceless velar stop, as in **k**ey)

6. **$/g/$** (voiced velar stop, as in **g**o)

These sounds are characterized by a complete closure of the vocal tract, stopping the airflow, followed by a sudden release of that air (a plosion).

## English Consonants Overview

English typically has **24 consonant phonemes**. These consonants are categorized by their **manner of articulation** (how the sound is made) and **place of articulation** (where in the mouth the sound is made). Stops (plosives) form one of these manner categories.

48. Among the 24 English consonants, how many sounds can be categorized/termed as semivowels?

a. four

b. three

c. two

d. One

The number of sounds among the 24 English consonants that are categorized or termed as semivowels is two (2).

The two English semivowel sounds, also known as glides, are:

/w/ (the labial-velar approximant, as in wet)

/j/ (the palatal approximant, as in yes)

Why They Are Called Semivowels

Semivowels are considered consonants because they function as a consonant at the margin of a syllable (usually the onset), but they are produced with the vocal tract very open, much like a vowel.

The sound /w/ is phonetically similar to the close back rounded vowel /uː/ (as in moon).

The sound /j/ is phonetically similar to the close front unrounded vowel /iː/ (as in seen).

Because their articulation is close to that of a vowel but their function is that of a consonant, they are termed semi-vowels or glides (as the articulation glides quickly from the vowel-like position to the following vowel).

49. English is a highly __________________ language.

a. stressed

b. inflected

c. structured

d. logical

50. The word portfolio, meaning ‘carry leaf’, comes from __________________.

a. French

b. German

c. Italian

d. Dutch

Etymology of "Portfolio"

The word portfolio is a direct borrowing from the Italian word portafoglio, which is a compound word:

porta (from the verb portare): meaning "carry" or "to hold."

foglio: meaning "leaf" or "sheet of paper."

51. The word ‘clash’ from two words ‘clack’ and ‘crash’ is an example of

_______________________.

a. a clipped word

b. a compound word

c. a back-formed word

d. a portmanteau word

The word 'clash' formed from 'clack' and 'crash' is an example of **d. a portmanteau word**.

## Explanation

A **portmanteau word** (also called a **blend**) is a word that is created by combining the sounds and meanings of two different words. Typically, the beginning of one word is joined with the end of another.

* In this case:

* **CL**ack

* cr**ASH**

* $\rightarrow$ **CLASH**

### Other Options

* **A clipped word** is a shortened form of an existing word (e.g., *ad* for *advertisement*, *flu* for *influenza*).

* **A compound word** is formed by joining two complete, existing words (e.g., *sun* + *flower* $\rightarrow$ *sunflower*, *black* + *board* $\rightarrow$ *blackboard*).

* **A back-formed word** is created by removing a supposed affix from an existing word (e.g., *edit* was created from *editor*).

52. English language has accepted Italian as the language of _____________________.

a. science

b. music

c. cuisine

d. Fashion

The English language has accepted Italian as the language of **music**. This is evident in the many **musical terms** that are standard in classical music and are derived from Italian, such as *allegro*, *adagio*, *crescendo*, *piano*, *opera*, and *concerto*.

53. From _______________, English has acquired the words: mosquito, tornado and vanilla.

a. Spanish

b. French

c. German

d. Greek

The words **mosquito**, **tornado**, and **vanilla** all entered English primarily as loanwords from **Spanish**:

* **Mosquito** comes from the Spanish *mosquito*, which is a diminutive of *mosca* (fly), literally meaning "little fly."

* **Tornado** comes from the Spanish *tornado*, which likely originated from a combination of *tronada* (thunderstorm) and *tornar* (to turn).

* **Vanilla** comes from the Spanish *vainilla*, which is a diminutive of *vaina* (pod or sheath), referring to the vanilla bean pod.

54. William Caxton, the first English printer, set up his wooden printing press at Westminstern in _____________________.

a. 1440

b. 1456

c. 1476

d. 1486

William Caxton set up his wooden printing press at Westminster in 1476. He established this press, which was the first in England, near the Almonry, allowing him to print works like Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales and others for the public.

Significance: This marked the introduction of the first printing press to England, revolutionizing the spread of knowledge and the standardization of the English language.

55. An open syllable ends in a _____________________.

a. consonant

b. vowels

c. diphthong

d. Semivowels

An **open syllable** is a syllable that has no coda (a final consonant) and ends with a **long vowel** sound (or a vowel sound pronounced as its name).

* **Examples:**

* *me* (the word is one syllable, and it ends in the vowel 'e')

* *to* (the word is one syllable, and it ends in the vowel 'o')

* *ba* in *baby*

* *spi* in *spider*

In contrast, a **closed syllable** ends in a consonant (the coda), such as *cat*, *dog*, or the syllable *ish* in *fish-ish*.

56. Chaucer, who was born and died in London, wrote in the ___________________ dialect of Middle English.

a. Northern

b. Southern

c. East Midlands

d. East Anglian

Chaucer wrote in the **East Midland** dialect of Middle English, specifically the version used in **London**.

This London-based form of the East Midland dialect was highly influential due to the city's status as the commercial and political center of England, and it ultimately became the foundation for what is known as **Standard English**.

57. The manner of pronunciation which is characteristic of a particular geographical area is known as _________________.

a. style

b. register

c. dialect

d. Accent

�� Accent refers to the distinctive manner of pronunciation characteristic of a particular geographical area or social group.

Style → variation in speech depending on formality.

Dialect → broader than accent, includes vocabulary and grammar, not just pronunciation.

58. The word ‘hour’ is an example of a ______________________.

a. monophthong

b. diphthong

c. triphthong

d. neutral vowel

The word ‘hour’ is an example of a **triphthong**.

* A **triphthong** is a glide from one vowel sound to another and then to a third, all within the same syllable. It typically consists of a monophthong followed by a diphthong, or a diphthong followed by a monophthong, but the entire movement is treated as one sound unit.

* In the word **'hour'** /aʊər/, the vowel sound starts close to /a/, moves towards /ʊ/, and ends with the schwa /ə/ or a slight /r/ coloring in some accents, making the vowel sequence a three-part glide.

* The common realization in many English accents is a glide that can be represented phonetically as /aʊə/ (as in the sequence in **'flower'** /flaʊər/ or **'power'** /paʊər/).

| Term | Description | Example Words |

| **Monophthong** | A single, pure vowel sound. | **b**ee /iː/, **b**oo**t** /uː/

| **Diphthong** | A glide from one vowel to a second within the same syllable (two vowel sounds). | **b**a**y** /eɪ/, **b**o**y** /ɔɪ/, **b**o**at** /oʊ/ |

| **Triphthong** | A glide from one vowel to a second and then to a third within the same syllable (three vowel sounds). | **hour** /aʊər/, **fire** /faɪər/ (or /faɪə/), **layer** /leɪər/ (or /leɪə/) |

| **Neutral Vowel** | Usually another term for the schwa /ə/, a short, unstressed, central vowel sound. | **a**bout /əˈbaʊt/, teach**er** /ˈtiːtʃər/ |

59. ______________________ observed specifically how immigrants learn a new language once they relocate. The theory is called the Acculturation Model.

a. Eve Clark

b. John Schumann

c. Steven Pinker

d. Edward Sapir

**John Schumann** is the linguist who observed specifically how immigrants learn a new language once they relocate, and his theory is called the **Acculturation Model**.

### The Acculturation Model

The Acculturation Model, proposed by Schumann in the 1970s, suggests that the degree to which an immigrant or second-language learner **acculturates** (integrates into the culture of the target-language group) is the primary determinant of their success in learning the target language.

* **High Acculturation** (social and psychological distance are small) leads to **greater success** in language acquisition.

* **Low Acculturation** (social and psychological distance are large) leads to **fossilization** (the permanent cessation of learning) and limited success.

60. ______________________ proposed the idea of distinctive features, which suggests that all sounds of speech are marked by binary contrasts which can be described and quantified.

a. Roman Jakobson

b. Edward Sapir

c. Paul Grice

d. Ferdinand de Saussure

Explanation: Roman Jakobson is a renowned linguist who is credited with developing the concept of distinctive features, which describes how sounds in a language are differentiated by specific binary contrasts like voiced/unvoiced or nasal/oral, allowing for their systematic classification.

Explanation of Distinctive Features

Distinctive features are the smallest indivisible units that differentiate phonemes (speech sounds) in a language.

Jakobson proposed that every sound can be characterized by a set of universal, binary contrasts (i.e., plus [+] or minus [−]), such as [±nasal], [±voice], [±continuant], etc.

By specifying the value (plus or minus) for each feature, a linguist can uniquely describe and distinguish every phoneme from every other phoneme in a language.

For example:

The sound /p/ is [−voice,−nasal,−continuant].

The sound /b/ is [+voice,−nasal,−continuant].

The only feature that distinguishes them is [±voice].z

61. ______________________ is a pioneer in the field of first language acquisition, and has revolutionized the way we understand how children pick up language.

a. Stephen Krashen

b. Steven Pinker

c. Eve Clark

d. Noam Chomsky

Noam Chomsky revolutionized linguistics by proposing that humans have an innate capacity for language acquisition, challenging earlier views that focused solely on environmental factors.

Chomsky introduced the concept of Universal Grammar, a system of innate grammatical principles shared by all human languages, suggesting that children are born with an understanding of how language works.

He also posited the existence of a Language Acquisition Device (LAD), a hypothetical mental mechanism that enables children to acquire and understand language quickly and easily.

62. ________________________ was the first modern European linguist to identify language as a rule-governed system rather than a hodgepodge collection of words and phrases.

a. Ferdinand de Saussure

b. Leonard Bloomfield

c. Karl Brugmann

d. Wilhelm von Humboldt

Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835) is often credited with emphasizing that language is a dynamic process (an energeia) and a structured system that enables infinite use of finite means (the system of rules), rather than a static product or simple list of words (ergon). This view contrasts sharply with the earlier, more atomistic or historical-comparative focus of many of his contemporaries and predecessors.

The most concise example illustrating Humboldt's concept of language as a rule-governed system (energeia) is:

A child who learns a finite number of grammatical rules can generate an infinite number of brand-new, unique sentences, such as, "The sleepy unicorn danced on the fluffy cloud." ��

63. The reference to a person, object, or event which relies on the situational context is called _________________.

a. inference

b. deixis

c. anaphora

d. Cataphora

* **Deixis** refers to words or phrases whose meaning is entirely dependent on the **situational context** (who is speaking, where, and when). They "point" to elements in the immediate situation.

| Term | Definition | Example |

| **b. Deixis** | Reference to a person, object, or event that relies on the **situational context** (the speaker, place, or time). | **"I** need **that** book **now**." (**I** depends on the speaker, **that** on the location, **now** on the time of utterance.) |

| **c. Anaphora** | Reference to an entity that has **already been introduced** in the text or discourse. (Points backward). | "John bought a car. **It** is red." (**It** refers to 'a car'). |

| **d. Cataphora** | Reference to an entity that is **introduced later** in the text or discourse. (Points forward). | "**It** was a beautiful sight, the full moon on the ocean." (**It** refers to 'the full moon'). |

| **a. Inference** | The process of drawing a conclusion based on evidence and reasoning, often used to figure out missing information in communication. | Hearing someone say, "I'm selling my car; I need bus fare," you **infer** they are out of money. |

64. An informal test to see whether a sentence is ___________________ or not is to insert the words “I hereby” before the verb.

a. imperative

b. declarative

c. performative

d. Constative

This is known as the **"I hereby" test**, which is a quick way to check if a verb is being used to *perform* an action (a **performative utterance**) rather than just describe a state of affairs (a constative utterance).

## Explanation and Examples

* **Performative Utterances:** These are sentences where the utterance of the words *is* the performance of an act. They are often marked by the presence of a **first-person singular subject ("I")** and a **verb in the present tense**.

* **Test:** Inserting "I hereby" before the verb sounds natural.

* **Example:** "**I hereby** *promise* to be on time." (The act of speaking the sentence *is* the act of promising.)

* **Example:** "**I hereby** *declare* the meeting adjourned." (The act of speaking the sentence *is* the act of adjourning the meeting.)

* **Constative Utterances:** These are sentences that describe a state, event, or process and are judged as true or false.

* **Test:** Inserting "I hereby" before the verb sounds awkward or nonsensical.

* **Example:** "The cat *sits* on the mat."

* **Test Result:** "I hereby *sit* on the mat." (This is awkward; the act of saying it doesn't *make* the act of sitting happen.)

65. “I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth”. The action performed by the speaker through this utterance is a _____________________ type of illocutionary act.

a. declarative

b. assertive

c. directive

d. Commissive

The statement "I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth" is a prime example of a declarative illocutionary act.

Declarative Acts (Declaration): These are speech acts that bring about a new state of affairs or reality simply by being uttered, provided the speaker has the necessary institutional authority to do so. In this case, the speaker (e.g., a sponsor or dignitary) has the authority to formally confer a name on an object like a ship, thereby changing its status from unnamed to named.

Other examples: "I pronounce you man and wife," "I sentence you to ten years in prison," and "You're fired."

Contrast with other types:

Assertive/Representative Acts: Commit the speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition (e.g., "The Earth is round," "It's cold outside").

Directive Acts: Try to get the hearer to do something (e.g., "Close the door," "Could you pass the salt?").

Commissive Acts: Commit the speaker to some future course of action (e.g., "I promise to call you," "I will pay you back").

66. The complex sounds that begin as plosives and end as fricatives are called ___________.

a. stops

b. affricates

c. liquids

d. Glides

Affricates are complex speech sounds that combine the complete closure of a stop (or plosive) with the gradual release of a fricative.

They begin with the tongue closing the vocal tract (like /t/ or /d/) but immediately release the closure slowly, creating friction (like /s/ or /z/).

The two most common affricates in English are the sounds found in "ch" as in chair (t∫) and "j" as in jam (d

Z ).

67. The speech sounds produced when the airstream is frictionless and is modified by the position of the tongue and lips are called _______________.

a. stops

b. nasals

c. liquids

d. Glides

Glides involve a rapid transition from a vowel-like position to the following vowel sound, without the turbulence (friction) that defines consonants like fricatives or the complete blockage that defines stops and nasals.

English Examples:

The sound /w/ in we (requires lip rounding and tongue backness, like the vowel /u/).

The sound /j/ in yes (requires the tongue to be high and front, like the vowel /i/).

68. Plosives, fricatives and affricates are collectively known as ___________________.

a. forelinguals

b. backlinguals

c. obstruents

d. Sonorants

Plosives, fricatives, and affricates are collectively known as **obstruents**.

## Explanation

**Obstruents** are speech sounds produced by obstructing the airflow in the vocal tract, causing a significant change in the airflow. They include:

* **Plosives** (or stops): Sounds produced by completely stopping the airflow and then releasing it suddenly (e.g., /p/, /t/, /k/).

* **Fricatives**: Sounds produced by narrowing the vocal tract so the air escapes with friction (e.g., /f/, /s/, /z/).

* **Affricates**: Sounds that begin as a plosive and are released as a fricative (e.g., /tʃ/ as in "**ch**ur**ch**").

The other options are:

* **Forelinguals** and **backlinguals** refer to the part of the tongue used in articulation (front or back).

* **Sonorants** are sounds produced with a relatively open vocal tract, allowing air to escape without turbulence. This group includes vowels, glides, liquids, and nasals.

69. ‘Beware’ is a(n) ______________ verb used only in the imperative sentences or to give caution.

a. defective

b. substantive

c. linking

d. Irregular

"Beware" is considered a defective verb because it only has a limited form, only existing in the infinitive and imperative forms. It lacks the present and past tense conjugations that most verbs have. Since it's primarily used to give a caution or command, which is characteristic of the imperative mood, it's specifically associated with that usage.

Why other options are incorrect:

b. substantive: Substantive verbs are main verbs that express a state of being or action. "Beware" is not a typical substantive verb as it doesn't convey a primary action or state of being. It's more of an auxiliary verb used to warn.

c. linking: Linking verbs connect a subject to a predicate adjective or predicate noun, describing the subject's state or condition. "Beware" doesn't function as a linking verb, as it doesn't relate a subject to something else. It stands alone as a complete thought, issuing a warning.

d. irregular: While "Beware" is indeed an unusual verb due to its defective nature, "irregular" refers to verbs that change their form significantly in different tenses (like "go" becoming "went" and "gone"). "Beware" doesn't follow a typical irregular pattern; it's more a unique case of a verb with limited forms.

70. ‘The video went viral on social media’. The use of the word ‘viral’ in the given sentence is an example of ____________________.

a. homonymy

b. metonymy

c. polysemy

d. Hyponymy

The use of the word "viral" in the sentence "The video went viral on social media" is an example of c. polysemy.

Explanation: "Viral" originally refers to a virus, but in recent usage, it has taken on a secondary meaning related to rapid spread on the internet, like a virus can spread quickly. This is a case of polysemy, where a single word has multiple, related meanings.

Why other options are incorrect:

a. homonymy: Homonymy refers to words that have completely different meanings but the same spelling or pronunciation. "Viral" and "virus" are related in meaning, so this is not homonymy.

b. metonymy: Metonymy is a figure of speech where something is referred to by something associated with it. While "viral" might be associated with rapid spread, it's not a direct substitution for anything else. There's no clear relationship between a virus and internet videos that constitutes metonymy.

d. hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to a word that is more specific than another, broader word (like "cat" is a hyponym of "animal"). "Viral" is not a more specific form of "virus"; rather, it's a different usage of the same word with a related meaning.

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